How Much Do the 12 Days of Christmas Cost in 2013?

So, it's official. PNC Financial has released their yearly cost for the 12 days of Christmas. You remember the song: five golden rings, a partridge in a pear tree, etc. Every year, PNC Financial releases the cost of the "12 Days of Christmas" song based on the financial numbers of the prices for the items, or what they call the "Christmas Price Index".

So here are the costs for each of the twelve days:

One partridge in a pear tree: $199.99
Two turtle doves: $125.00
Three french hens: $165.00
Four calling birds: $599.96
Five golden rings: $750.00
Six geese-a-laying: $210.00
Seven swans-a-swimming: $7000.00
Eight maids-a-milking: $58.00
Nine ladies dancing: $7552.84
Ten lords-a-leaping: $5243.37
Eleven pipers piping: $2635.20
Twelve drummers drumming: $2854.50

Total of those added up would come to $27,393.17. If you kept track of last year's Christmas Price Index, you'd note that this year's is up 7.7% from last year.

Quite pricey. But that's only if you went through the song without repeating everything. Remember that the song starts at the first day. On the second day, it's the partridge and the turtle doves. On the third day, it's the french hens, the turtle doves, and the partridge. And so on. So if you repeat everything, how much does that cost? $114,651.18. This is over $7,000 more expensive that last year's.

What were the highest increases? The lords-a-leaping went up 10% (1% for each lord); the calling birds went up 15.4%; and the nine dancing ladies went up by 20%.

The other thing to keep in mind is that these prices are only based on buying them without shipping. If you added each line above and then added shipping, the total cost would be over $12,000 more.

Squanto's Story That the History Books Leave Out

Everyone remembers the story of Squanto: the Native who was sold into slavery, learned English, returned to America, befriended the Pilgrims, and helped them survive a very harsh winter. It's a nice story, but as is common with history, it's the story people want to remember. But it's not the whole story.

Squanto was actually known as Tisquantum. Historians don't agree on when he was born, though they usually attribute January 1 as he birthday. As to what year he was born, that also is up for debate. Some say as early as 1580, others say 1592, and others say somewhere in between. Tisquantum was born around the area of Plymouth as a member of Patuxet tribe, which was a member of the Wampanoag Confederacy of tribes. 

Common picture of Tisquantum (Squanto)

His story begins when he was captured by Captain George Weymouth in 1605. Weymouth had been commissioned by the Plymouth Company (owned by Sir Fernando Gorges) to explore the coasts of what would later be called Massachusetts and Maine. Along with Tisquantum, Weymouth also captured four Penobscots, believing that his financial backers would like to see some Indians. Weymouth returned to England and presented Tisquantum to Sir Gorges. Sir Gorges then taught Tisquantum English, the ways of England, and hired him to return to the New World to be an interpreter and guide.

In 1614, Tisquantum returned to New England with Captain John Smith, but he was subsequently captured again. This time, it was by English explorer Thomas Hunt, who then sold Tisquantum into slavery in Spain. He escaped and lived with some monks for a couple years. He eventually made his way back to New England again in 1619, only to find that his entire tribe had been wiped out by a plague (commonly believed to be smallpox). With no home, he chose to live with the Wampanoags.

On March 22,1621, the Tisquantum was introduced to the Pilgrims, and went on to teach the Pilgrims to fish and cultivate the land. Chief Massasoit appointed Tisquantum to be liaison between the tribe and the Pilgrims. Tisquantum went on to lead members of the Pilgrims on exploratory missions in the area, help find lost members of the group, and continue to educate the Pilgrims on the land. 

In the summer of 1621, Tisquantum and his companion Hobomok were sent to spy on Corbitant, a member of the Wampanoag tribe who was very anti-English. Corbitant harassed the two, and fearing for their lives, they tried to flee, but only Hobomok escaped. He appealed to the Pilgrims, and Miles Standish rallied a few men who marched to free Tisquantum. The Pilgrims attacked a Wampanoag village, but Corbitant had already released Tisquantum and fled by then. 

Hobomok had been assigned to watch over Tisquantum because Massasoit didn't trust Tisquantum. He felt that Tisquantum had been getting too close to the Pilgrims. Massasoit's fears were realized when Tisquantum began to abuse his power by threatening the Wampanoags that the English would release plague to them if they didn't do what he said. Massasoit had been distrusting of him anyway, but that was the last straw.

In late November, 1622, Tisquantum was on his way back from a meeting of the Wampanoags and Pilgrims (whose relations had been deteriorating due to his own abuse of power) when he became gravely ill: bleeding from the nose and having a fever. A few days later, he died. Although most people assume it was smallpox, there are growing beliefs that he had actually been poisoned by the Wampanoags. One reason that smallpox seems odd is that he had been to Europe twice and had lived around English settlers for a year and a half. The reason so many of the Natives died of disease in this time is because they had no natural immunities built up against diseases from Europe. One would have thought that taking Tisquantum to Europe twice would have made him catch something, but apparently not. Either he was very lucky before, or someone gave him something to make him die. 

Either way, his name lives on in history books as simply Squanto, the Indian who taught the Pilgrims to plant a fish with their corn and taught them how to fish. The truth though is always a little bit different than what is commonly remembered.

Beatles Banned from Israel?

In 2008, the nation of Israel sent a formal letter of apology to Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr and members of the Lennon and Harrison families. Why? Because back in the 1960's, Israel banned the Beatles.

Paul McCartney performing in Tel Aviv, 2008

Yes, you read that correct: Israel banned the Beatles. But where did this come from, you ask? Was it from anti-Semitic behavior or acts? McCartney's father was a bit anti-Semitic himself, who wasn't sure it was a good idea for the band to put their trust in their (at the time) new manager Brian Epstein, who was Jewish. Lennon himself is on record with making anti-Semitic jokes at the expense of Brian Epstein.

Or was it the event in 1968 for publicity? Upon the release of the new single "Hey Jude", McCartney thought it would be a good idea to paint the name of the song right in the middle of London's business district. This didn't go well having "Hey Jude" painted there. Jewish residents called Apple Records to complain about the paint work. Why? Because it was reminiscent of the Nazi act of painting German businesses owned by Jewish citizens with "No Juden" or "Juden Owned". Certainly this didn't help the relations with Israel. But was that the cause?

Actually, no. Israel banned the Beatles in 1965, a full three years before the failed publicity stunt. So why were they banned? For the same reason that many conservative families didn't like the Beatles. The key is in an Israeli Resolutions 691 and 709.

Resolution 691: Resolved: Not to allow the [Beatles'] request for fear that the performances by the Beatles are liable to have a negative influence on the [country's] youth.

Resolution 709: …the band has no artistic merit… [performances] cause hysteria and mass disorder among young people.

Many American conservative groups wouldn't buy into the merits of the British band for the exact same reasons, but it was Israel that banned them. It was 43 years later when they finally apologized and allowed the surviving members to return. On September 26, 2008, Paul McCartney was the first Beatle to perform a concert in Israel. It was the "Friendship First" concert which celebrated the 60th anniversary of the Israeli state.

Is the St. Paul Sandwich from St. Paul?

If you have ever been to a Chinese restaurant in St. Louis, you will probably have noticed St. Paul sandwiches. But what are these sandwiches and where did they come from?

The St Paul Sandwich

There are two theories as to where they came from.

The first theory is that it was created in the 1940's by Steven Yuen at Park Chop Suey in Lafayette Square and named after his hometown of St. Paul, Minnesota. It is said that he created it because Chinese food was beginning to be popular with non-Asian people, and he wanted to create something that they were a little more used to: a sandwich.

The second theory is that it was created by Chinese immigrant railroad workers. St. Louis was a large railroad town at the time, so many Chinese immigrants came through St. Louis. They created the sandwich for lunches since it was simple and easily portable. As legend has it, since it was not easy for the immigrants to say "Louis", they changed it to a more simple name: "Paul".

Whichever is true, what's clear is that the sandwich has stood the test of time. It was originally contained four slices of bread with chicken and egg stuffed inside. Now, the sandwich is two slices of white bread, an egg foo young patty, pickles, onions, mayo, lettuce, and tomato, and sometimes with either chicken, pork, beef, or shrimp.

You can't find hardly any St. Louis Chinese restaurants that doesn't have the St. Paul sandwich. But you can find it elsewhere too. These sandwiches have popped up in other Missouri cities such as Jefferson City, Columbia, and Springfield. These sandwiches have also begun to pop up in California and Oregon. Sometimes, they are referred to as things like 'egg foo young on a bun', but it's basically the same thing.

The Wow! Signal

Ever since the late 1940's, Americans have been infatuated with the little green men from Mars. Scifi movies have become an art form in American cinema as a result. So in 1977 a movie called 'Close Encounters of the Third Kind'. In that same year, a real event occurred that would seem to have come straight from the movie. On August 15, 1977, a SETI project in Ohio received a signal that seemingly came from the stars. Was it extraterrestrial life?

The signal received in 1977 was not science fiction but an actual event. It has become known as the 'Wow! Signal' because on the paper printout of the signal, the man who detected it (Jerry Ehman) wrote 'Wow!' next to the signal. The reason for his excitement? The signal matched closely the signal of an radio transmission. The implications of this are obvious: if it didn't come from earth, where did it come from?

Original printout of the Wow! Signal

No one really knows where the signal originated from. If you look in the night sky at the constellation Sagittarius, that is where the signal is believed to have originated, although there is speculation as the exact location.

Shortly after, Ehman tried to find the signal again for the next while, but he couldn't find it. Attempts by others were made in 1987, 1989, 1995, 1996, and 1999 to find the signal, but each attempt was met with nothing. In 2012, on the 35th anniversary, scientists beamed a response of 10,000 Twitter messages in the direction of the signal as well as header messages which show that the messages are intentional and from an intelligent life form.

Although there is much speculation to this day as to whether the signal was natural or created by another life form or even if it was something from ourselves, the Wow! Signal has peaked the imagination and curiosity of scientists and astronomers all over the world. Until the mystery is solved, they will continue to search and listen.

Haunted Attractions, Pepper's Ghost, Screaming Jay Hawkins

Haunted Houses are an essential part of Halloween. They include both practical effects, psychological effects, and special effects. But where did these come from and what exactly is out there?

The first special effects that are associated came about because of Pepper's Ghost. This trick was created in the late 1800's by John Henry Pepper. It simply takes an L shape, cutting it in half by a plate of glass and a mirror next to the glass. The audience can only see one half of the L. In the side the audience can't see, there is an actor wearing a ghostly outfit and the room looks identical to the room the audience can see. When the lights are lit in a certain way, the reflection of the actor appears to the audience as being transparent. With changing the lighting, the actor can appear to morph into something else or disappear completely. This trick has been used in countless haunted attractions, stage shows, movies, and carnivals.

Diagram of the Pepper's Ghost Illusion

The first haunted attractions came about as part of the carnivals and circuses of the early 20th Century. Sideshows, freak shows, oddity museums, fun houses, and dark rides were staples of the carnival experience. The first haunted house attraction (that is credited as such) was the Orton and Spooner Haunted House in 1915, which drew inspiration from the scary moral tales that parents would tell their children to keep them from doing bad things.

There wasn't a large understanding of haunted attractions as we know them today. From the 1930's-60's, movie theaters would pair a scary movie with a live feature, which would be seances, magicians, or other seemingly other worldly acts. These events were called "Midnight Spooks".

The birth of shock rock had a direct influence on the haunted attraction. Shock rock was created in the 1950's and has continued to adapt ever since. These bands used horror themed imagery to shock the audience in addition to the music. Probably the first of these was Screaming Jay Hawkins, who would perform "I Put a Spell on You" and rise from a coffin.

Screaming Jay Hawkins in voodoo outfit - 1960's

The shock rock performances really amped up the scare factor that could be used in haunted attractions. Haunted attractions began to pop up across the country. In the 1970's and 80's, charity haunted attractions began to pop up with proceeds going to charities. In those days, there were few prop companies in existence, so usually the imagery had to be created by the owners. The artistry was crude at best most of the time. By the 90's, prop companies were feeding off the increase of prop companies that exploded due to the success of horror movie franchises in the 80's.

In the 90's a religious movement was used to take attention away from Halloween; this was called the Anti-Halloween Movement. These haunted houses were called hell houses and depicted scenes from hell and different forms of sin.

By the early 2000's, the haunted attraction industry was massive. Props were much better quality than they had been previously. New music emerged for the haunted attraction, called dark ambient, which added to the eerie sounds of haunted houses.

Today, there are all sorts of different types of haunted attractions, many of which are combined in a single attraction. The different attraction are haunted house, haunted experience, haunted forest/trail, haunted hayride, haunted theme park (also known as a screampark), dark maze or chain maze, hell house, dark ride, haunted cornfield maze, home haunt, ghost run, and yard haunt/yard display. The industry has grown into a multi-billion dollar industry. The quality now is top notch, and sure to scare you.

Check out a haunted attraction near you and have a happy Halloween!

The Fourth Voyage of Columbus

There is evidence from writings that Columbus knew he was not in the Far East, but there is evidence from other writings that he thought he was in the Far East. When the Fourth Voyage was under way, Columbus said he was looking for the Straight of Malacca, which is the body of water between Malay Peninsula and the island of Sumatra.

Columbus's Fourth Voyage

On May 11, 1502, Columbus and his crew set sail from Spain with four ships. He first landed on the Moroccan coast to rescue Portuguese who were under siege. He then landed on the island of Martinique on June 15. On June 29, the group landed at Santo Domingo (the capital port city). His group predicted that a hurricane was building, so they sailed to Hispaniola for safe harbor. Governor Bobadilla (who'd inherited the job two years earlier when Columbus was jailed) rejected the idea of Columbus having safe harbor, so he denied them the use of the port. Columbus pleaded with him that a hurricane was approaching and that they needed the safety of the port and that no ships should depart until the storm passed. Columbus then moved on to the mouth of a river for safety. Bobadilla not only wouldn't let Columbus have safe port, but he sent out the Spanish treasure fleet (a convoy system through the Spanish empire). While Columbus's ships had almost no damage, 29 of the 30 convoy ships were sunk on July 1 from the hurricane, taking a large cargo of gold, 500 lives, and even Bobadilla himself to the bottom of the ocean.

Columbus moved on and landed off the coast of Honduras on July 30, not arriving at the mainland until August 14. He then spent two months exploring the coasts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. On October 16, he was in Panama. He learned of a path that opens to another ocean, and he looked for it, but on December 5, a major hurricane hit, hampering some of the search efforts. In January, 1503, he set up a garrison to help with the search. On April 6, one of his ships became stuck in the river near where the garrison was located. At the same time, the garrison was attacked by natives, and the other ships were damaged.

On April 16, they left, heading for Hispaniola. On May 10, they spotted the Cayman Islands. Off the coast of Cuba, they ran into another storm, which damaged the ships further. Battered and unable to travel any farther, his group landed on Jamaica on June 23. A member of the crew and some natives paddled to Hispaniola to get help for the stranded crew, but the new governor detested Columbus and not only wouldn't send help, he obstructed others from helping. Columbus and his crew remained stranded on Jamaica for a year. While on the island, he had to win over the natives so they would help feed them. He was able to do this by successfully predicting a lunar eclipse that occurred on February 29, 1504. Help finally arrived on June 29, 1504. The group finally made it back to Spain on November 7, 1504.

The Third Voyage of Columbus

Columbus's Third Voyage started off hopefully but ended in failure. Columbus chose this trip to sail farther south than in the two previous voyages. After he left Spain on May 30, 1498, three of his ships headed directly to Dominica with supplies, but Columbus and the remaining three ships sailed farther south. While in the Atlantic, he discovered what we call today 'compass variation', where north on his compass and north as calculated by the North Star differed based on his position. His ships stalled out in the Atlantic for a few days with no wind, but soon were able to move again. Because of the stall, his ships were running low on supplies. They couldn't sail farther south; they had to make for familiar land in order to resupply.

Columbus's Third Voyage

On July 31, they landed on the island of Trinidad. From August 4-12, he explored the Gulf of Paria, which separates Trinidad from the Paria Peninsula (part of today's Venezuela). He then landed on and explored part of this peninsula. The Orinoco River empties into the ocean here, and Columbus correctly believed that he was not on an island, but a large land mass. He was still looking for the passage into the Pacific, but he knew that he wouldn't find it there. He moved on to the islands of Chacachacare and Margarita, and sighted Grenada.

By this point, Columbus was in poor health, so they set sail for a familiar island: Hispaniola. They landed on August 19, but their trouble was just beginning. Many of the settlers on the island were in rebellion against Columbus's rule, saying he was cruel and that they had been misled about the treasures of the New World. A number of settlers and sailors had returned to Spain and testified in court against him, saying he and his brothers had mismanaged the territory. Columbus had a number of the settlers hanged for disobedience. The court in Spain didn't like these reports either, and the clergy in Spain went up in arms when they heard that Columbus refused to baptize the natives because of his economic interest in using the natives as slaves. In October 1499, he sent a couple ships back to Spain with a message he needed a commissioner appointed to help him govern. The new commissioner (Francisco de Bobadilla) arrived in 1500 and was immediately met with complaints about Columbus and his brothers. Based on this, and based on the complaints heard by the court in Spain, Columbus was arrested, chained, and sent back to Spain, all without a defense.

In 2006, a 48-page report was found in the Spanish city of Valladolid. It contained the testimonies of 23 people who were both in support and against Columbus's rule. Much of it is filled with barbaric tales of his leadership, too cruel to mention in this blog. However, it basically explains that just short of genocide took place on the island of Hispaniola.

After six weeks in jail, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella finally were able to listen to Columbus's side of the story. It is obvious that Columbus had created much wealth and fame for the Spanish empire, but his ruling methods were cruel and too harsh for the Spanish to abide by. The king and queen released Columbus and his brothers, restored their wealth, and even agreed to fund a Fourth Voyage. But Columbus would no longer be any kind of ruler.

The Second Voyage of Columbus

Columbus left from the port of Cadiz on September 24, 1493, on his second voyage to the 'New World' for one purpose: colonies settlement. The new policy for explorations was beyond just exploiting the resources of the new lands. This is why the second voyage had 17 ships and 1200 men. Just like in the first voyage, the group stopped at the Canary Islands for resupplying. They left to sail the Atlantic on October 13. They first spotted land on November 3. They first landed on the island of Dominica, followed by Guadalupe, which he explored between November 4-10. And thus began the discoveries.

Map of the Second Voyage

A whole series of islands were discovered on this trip. The islands discovered were as follows: Montserrat, Antigua, Redonda, Nevis, St. Kitts, Sint Eustatius, Saba, St. Martin, and St. Croix. You might recognize several of these islands as being vacation destinations. He also discovered the Virgin Islands, and named three: Virgin Gorda, Tortola, and Peter Island. He continued on and landed on Puerto Rico, naming it San Juan Bautista (but later only its capital city of San Juan retained any of this name). It was on Puerto Rico that Columbus had his first real encounter with armed resistance when his group rescued two boys from a tribe.

The group continued on to Hispaniola on November 22. His goal was to revisit the settlement of La Navidad that was set up on his first voyage. However, he found the settlement in ruins, and 11 of the 39 Spaniards in the settlement dead. He found out the native Taino people committed the attack, so he set up a system where any member of the Taino that was over 14 years old had to deliver an amount of gold every three months, and if they couldn't get gold, then they had to bring an amount of spun cotton. Punishment for not bringing the demanded amounts was a cutting off of the hands and bleeding to death. Columbus moved on and began the settlement of La Isabella, but this settlement didn't last long because it was situated in a poor location.

Next he moved on to Cuba, which he arrived at on April 30, 1494. He explored the island's southern coast, then moved on to Jamaica on May 5. He retraced his way back to Hispaniola, and departed the island for Europe on August 20, 1494.

This voyage was wrought with controversy throughout history. Not only was his harsh treatment of the Taino people called into question, but an incident with a friend of his that accompanied the voyage. Michele de Cuneo, a childhood friend of Columbus, wrote a letter about a native woman that he wished to have for himself, but when the woman wasn't interested, Cuneo beat her. Some historians have come to the conclusion that Columbus not only knew about the event but willfully accepted it. Either way, Columbus's ways and manners with the natives were beginning to be called into question, but they wouldn't reach the courts in Spain until after his third voyage.

The First Voyage of Columbus

Everyone knows this song which has the famous line "in 1492 Columbus sailed the ocean blue", and everyone knows that he sailed the Niña, the Pinta, and Santa Maria. But is that the whole story? Of course not. Columbus made four voyages to the New World before he died in 1506. And what you don't know may surprise you! Here's the story of the first voyage.

Christopher Columbus set sail from Palos de la Frontera on August 3, 1492. He had three ships: the large Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Santa Clara (which had been nicknamed the Niña, which is Spanish for "little girl" since the Santa Clara was smaller than the Santa Maria). The three ships stopped at the Canary Islands for restocking and supplies before leaving on September 6 to cross the ocean. Around 2 AM on the morning of October 12, a lookout named Rodrigo de Triana spotted land from the Pinta. He alerted the captain (Martin Alonzo Pinzon) who verified that it was land. He shot a cannon to alert Columbus on the Santa Maria. (This is important because Columbus told the king and queen of Spain that he was the first to see land, because they had promised a lifetime pension to whoever spotted land first.)

Approximate Trip of the First Voyage

We know that Columbus and his men landed on an island they called San Salvador, and we know it is in the Bahamas, but we don't know exactly which island it was. There are three possibilities: Samana Cay, Plana Cays, or and island that was named San Salvador Island in 1925. Although we don't exactly know which people he encountered, we know that the first group were friendly. Columbus knew they were of no match for him and his men, writing in his diary "I could conquer the whole of them with 50 men, and govern them as I pleased." 

After some more stops on small islands, they landed on the northeast coast of Cuba on October 28. After some exploring of the shore, on November 22, Pinzon on the Pinta left to find an island the natives had told them about which was supposed to be rich in gold. Columbus and the other two ships continued exploring and arrived on the northern coast of Hispaniola on December 5. On December 25, the Santa Maria ran aground and had to be abandoned. Columbus met with a native tribe who agreed to the idea that Columbus leave behind some men. So 39 men were left and founded the settlement of La Navidad (which is present day Mole-Saint-Nicholas, Haiti). Columbus on the Santa Clara (the Niña) rejoined the Pinta on January 6. 

The last stop of the voyage was on January 13 on Samana Peninsula on Hispaniola. They encountered a tribe that showed force against the explorers. They used arrows against Columbus and his crew, so they called it the Bay of Arrows (which is today Bay of Rincon in the Dominican Republic). It was here that Columbus kidnapped some of the natives to take back to Spain. (The exact number isn't known because only seven or eight actually made the trip.) 

He set sail for Spain, but a storm forced the two ships to the port of Lisbon, Portugal, on March 4, 1493. After a week in Lisbon, they set sail and arrived at the port of Palos on March 15.

Naturally, word spread quickly of Columbus's discovery, but had he discovered a "New World"?

Robert Wadlow, Tallest Man

Who is the tallest man in recorded history? You may know the answer if you live near Alton, IL, or have ever visited a Guinness World Records Museum or a Ripleys Believe It or Not Museum.

Robert Wadlow was born in Alton, IL, on February 22, 1918, to very average sized parents. His mother was about 5 ft 6 in tall, and his father was about 6 ft tall. When he was born, he weighed 8 lb 6 oz, and was about 18 inches long. Very normal. Unfortunately, this was the only time in his life that he was normal sized.

Robert standing next to his father

Robert suffered from a condition called hyperplasia of his pituitary gland. Hyperplasia is a condition where an organ produces an unusually high amount of cell. In Robert's case, the overabundance of cells in his pituitary gland caused him to continue to rapidly grow his whole life. His size caused him a great deal of pain, so he had to wear leg braces in order to walk. It got to the point he couldn't feel his feet or most of his legs. He would walk with a cane, but refused to use a wheelchair.

He became a celebrity starting in 1936 when he toured with the Ringling Brothers Circus. He continued to tour in the following years, but in those tours he wore his own street clothes. On June 27, 1940, he was measured and checked in at 8 ft 11.1 in tall, officially being declared the tallest person on record. On July 4, 1940, he was at a public appearance at the Manistee National Forest Festival. His leg brace irritated his ankle which caused a blister that soon became infected. Doctors performed a blood transfusion and a emergency surgery. His condition grew worse, and he died in his sleep on July 15, 1940. He was buried in a 10 foot long casket that weighed nearly half a ton.

Below is a list of events in his life and how tall he was at the time.

When he began to walk at 11 months old, he was about 3 ft 5.75 in tall and weighed 45 lbs.
At age 4 1/2, he passed his mother's height. He was 5 ft 6.5 in tall and weighed 120 lbs.
At age 5, he attended kindergarten. He was 5 ft 10 in tall and weighed 143 lbs.
At age 6, he passed his father's height. He was 6 ft tall and weighed 160 lbs.
At age 9, he was strong enough to carry his father upstairs. He was 6 ft 5 in tall and weighed 180 lbs.
At age 13, he wore a size 25 shoe size. He was 7 ft 4 in and weighed 301 lbs.
At age 18, he was 8 ft 4 in tall and weighed 391 lbs.
At age 22, he was 8 ft 11.1 in tall and weighed 492 lbs.

Although the condition of hyperplasia of the pituitary gland is rare, it does happen. Once the diagnosis has been made, it is possible to correct it. This treatment only stops growth, so if you are already abnormally large, you will stay that way, but you won't continue growing.

Robert's statue in Alton, IL

Robert Wadlow was known as the "Alton Giant" as well as the "Gentle Giant". He is still well known today for as much of his pleasant demeanor as his size.

The Civil War Widow of the 21st Century?

Who was the last Civil War widow to die? Her name was Maudie Hopkins. Would it surprise you to know that she died in 2008? How could it be that someone married a man who served in the war at a time between 1861-65 and die almost 150 years afterward? Actually, it's a simple manner.

Cantrell and Hopkins

You see, back in the early 1900's, young women would marry these older Civil War veterans in order to obtain his pension once he died. In Arkansas (where Maudie was from) made a state law in 1937 saying that women who married these veterans were not eligible for the pensions. The law was changed in 1939 to say that women who married the men after 1870 were not eligible.

Maudie married William M. Cantrell in 1934. He supported her with his pension, and after he died, she obtained his house in 1937. The pensions were cut off in 1937 because of the state law. She went on to remarry that same year and two times afterward.

In case you're curious, William M. Cantrell had enlisted in the Confederate army and served in the Virginia Infantry. He had been captured in 1863 and was released in a prisoner exchange.

William Cantrell's gravestone

By now, you're probably curious of how their ages matched up and how this all is possible. Cantrell joined the Confederate army at age 16. Maudie was born in 1914. Cantrell's wife died in 1929. Maudie married Cantrell in 1934: he was 86, she was 19. Maudie went onto live to the age of 93 when she passed away in 2008.

Maudie has the distinction of being the last known Civil War widow, but there are rumored to be two more: one in Tennessee and one in North Carolina. If these two are still alive, they apparently want to remain anonymous. Maudie didn't like to talk about her first marriage for fear of a tarnished reputation and gossip in the community.

Sea Salt and Table Salt

One of the new trendy health food items is sea salt. The claim is that sea salt is better for people because there is less processing involved. Packaging from all sorts of different foods and even restaurants proudly proclaim "made with sea salt!" as if it's a much better thing. But is it really any better?

As with nearly all elements of food, what's in the media or popular at the time might change. Not long ago, there was the switching from high fructose corn syrup back to real sugar as if real sugar was healthier. There's always the debate about eggs, which seems to switch from healthy to unhealthy and back within a couple years. So, what's the difference between table salt and sea salt? Is there a difference?

There is a difference in the salt and how it's made. Table salt is mined from land deposits, whereas sea salt is salt that has been collected after the water from a salt water body has been evaporated. Sometimes, these bodies of water are oceans or seas, sometimes they are salt lakes, and sometimes they are just salt water ponds created by the salt manufacturer. Table salt is processed to remove any other elements from the salt crystals, as well as usually adding iodine and a non-clumping agent. The other elements that can be found in salt (magnesium, calcium, etc.) are left in with the sea salt. These elements can give sea salts slightly different flavors and colors.

Different salt colors from around the world

Seems pretty different, right? Well, not exactly. The elements can adjust the taste somewhat and color, but if you look at the amount of sodium chloride (NaCl), the element that gives salt its taste, you will note that the amount of NaCl in table salt and sea salt is the exact same. Some people like to think and say that sea salt is a lower sodium alternative to table salt, when in actuality, it's exact same amount of sodium.

The only real differences turn out to be the minerals in the salt and the texture. The other minerals in sea salt may give sea salt a slightly different taste, but the minerals are in such a small quantity that the health benefits are negligible. Table salt has a uniform texture, whereas sea salt usually doesn't, but that's more appearance than health benefit.

So which is better? The Mayo Clinic and the American Heart Association agree that table salt and sea salt are the exact same when it comes to nutritional value. However, taste and texture can be different. So in the end, follow the researchers and don't give in to the media hype. Also remember that high uses of sodium (whether it be table salt or sea salt) can lead to health problems, so try not to have too much of either.

Once in a Blue Moon

There's an old phrase that goes "once in a blue moon". We all know it to mean once in a great while. But what is a blue moon and why does this phrase occur?

The term blue moon goes back a long time, but the first traces of it in written English are from a pamphlet written in 1528. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Maine Farmers' Almanac published the times of full moons for farmers. This publication was the first to explain the definition of a blue moon. But before their definition, you have to understand full moons first.

If you take a calendar year and split it into quarters, you are looking at four blocks of three months. Typically in a quarter, there are three full moons. Technically, there are 12.37 full moons a year. No, there aren't partial full moons, but mathematically, it works out to 12.37 full moons. This means that some years, there will be three full moons in a yearly quarter all year long. That year won't have a blue moon. But sometimes, there is a fourth full moon in the quarter. In order for the names of the three full moons to be kept in check, the third full moon in a quarterly amount of four full moons is considered to be the blue moon. This was the definition given by the Maine Farmers' Almanac.

However, in the 1940's, the magazine Sky & Telescope had an article about the blue moons. The author misinterpreted the definition that the almanac had made. He assumed that it meant some years there are 13 full moons instead of 12, and the second full moon in a month is considered to be the blue moon. Oddly enough, this inaccurate definition became the definition that people know.

So, last night, we had a blue moon, and the next one is scheduled to be for 2015. Since there is such a long period of time between blue moons, that's where the phrase "once in a blue moon" came to be known as once in a great while.

Also, don't forget the great classic song "Blue Moon".

The Flags on the Moon

Ever thought of the American flags left on the moon by the Apollo astronauts? All together, there have been six flags left on the moon from the six Apollo missions that landed on the moon. These flags were to forever immortalize the Americans' winning the space race and to symbolize the human spirit of peace through space exploration.

But what happened to these flags? Are they still there? Five of the six flags on the moon still stand. The one that doesn't is oddly the first one, placed by Armstrong and Aldrin. They planted the flag too close to the lunar module, and it blew over when they ignited their rocket to take off from the moon. However, the other five are exactly where they were the day they were planted.

We know they stand because there have been pictures taken of them still standing. These pictures are so clear that the rover tracks are still visible. So, 40 years later, the lunar rover tracks are still visible and the flags are still standing. End of story? Not exactly. You see, there has been quite a debate for a number of years as to what condition these flags would be in. When the pictures were taken, they proved the flags still stood. But, what they also proved was something that quite a few people had not expected.

To give you an idea, imagine you have a flag on your front porch, and you leave it outside for 40 years, what will happen to it? It will fade. Naturally weather and temperatures have a lot to do with that. Since there's no atmosphere on the moon or any weather, what do you think the flags look like today? Just as crisp and vibrant as the day they were planted?

No. After 40 years of unobstructed sunlight and sun radiation and temperature extremes that range from 14 straight days of temperatures around the boiling point to 14 straight days of -238 F, the flags can't handle that sort of brutality. According to the people studying the moon, the nylon flags not only lost their color a long time ago, but apparently the flags are now white.

Picture of the plaque left by Apollo 11

As it turns out, the most lasting piece of memorabilia the US left to show it was there is the commemorative plaque Armstrong and Aldrin left in 1969.

The Criterion Collection

In 1984, three men started the Criterion Collection. At the time, it was a video distribution company that released what they called "important classic and contemporary films", but it turned into one of the most respected film distribution and restoration companies in the world.

The reason they use the term "collection" in the name is because each release is numbered. Every film that comes out has a specific number, and the films can then be cataloged easily. In 1984, Criterion began releasing films on LaserDisc, beginning with 'Citizen Kane' (1941) and 'King Kong' (1933), which would be #1 and #2 respectively. Criterion would go on to release 384 LaserDisc films, the last being 1998's 'Armageddon'.

In the 80's, Criterion was a pioneer for the home video market by offering something new on some of their films: bonus features. Because the LaserDisc technology could allow for audio tracks on different analog channels, you could now hear foreign languages and audio commentaries. With scene indexes available, you could jump to the next scene without having to fast forward. You could also access things like movie trailers, documentaries, alternate endings, deleted scenes, and other content. The extra material gave viewers more information than just the movie (like VHS would).

One of the most important advances Criterion made for the home video was respecting the original aspect ratio of the movie. TV screens were in a 4:3 ratio, which is close to square. Many movies are in widescreen format (also called 'letterbox' because of the rectangular size), and when you showed a widescreen movie on a 4:3 screen, it would fill the screen, but it would chop the ends of the movie off. This is also how the "pan and scan" came about. If you watch a widescreen movie on a 4:3 screen, and you notice the camera seeming to move from side to side, but the screen appears almost fuzzy when it does this, that is a pan and scan. The editor of the video is trying to move the viewable area of the screen so you can see what you need to see, but since it isn't the actual camera, the quality is low. On Criterion's 8th LaserDisc released 'Invasion of the Body Snatchers' (1956), they chose to keep the film intact and not do what is referred to as "fullscreen format". By retaining widescreen format, there are the black bars at the top and bottom of the screen. Some find this annoying, but this way you can see the whole movie, and there is no annoying pan and scan taking place.

Criterion originally released mainstream, genre, and some art house films, but it really made a name for itself when it began to work with film restoration. They began to release more and more world cinema, cinema classics, and obscure films.

In 1998, Criterion ceased LaserDisc and began releasing films on DVD, but starting the number over at #1 with 'Grand Illusion' (1937). The DVD editions have been so popular than when they began releasing BluRay editions in December 2008, they released the BluRays alongside the DVD with the same numbers.

Criterion-released films were originally marketed as a "film school in a box". As a result, film students, film professors, filmmakers, and film aficionados preferred the Criterion edition to the regular edition, even though the price was usually higher. The numbered releases made collectors desire to have all the collection. This became difficult when Criterion sometimes lost the rights to the films. These films would go out of print as Criterion editions, and would surface for outrageous prices on sites like Ebay and Amazon. It is not unheard of for an out of print Criterion DVD to go for close to $200 on these sites.

Currently, Criterion is more popular than ever before. It's DVD/BluRay list of numbered titles now pass #670. They are the most respected art house film company in the world, and their popularity grows with each subsequent title.

For the most information (and a complete list of DVD/BluRay releases), go to their website. For a list of the LaserDisc releases (most of which were never released on DVD or BluRay), go here.

August 2, 1923 - Death of a President

For 90 years now, there has been speculation over the death of President Warren G. Harding. But why? Where did it come from? And how did he really die? Most likely, the simplest answer for most of these is to know that Harding was his own worst enemy.

Florence and Warren G. Harding

In 1920, Harding was elected president mostly for his photogenic looks (unlike his competitor) and his help as a senator in giving women the right to vote. That election year was the first that allowed women to vote in a presidential election, and the women didn't forget it. His plans for the presidency were high, but after he was elected, his views expanded beyond the traditional view of his party at the time. Following the previous president Wilson's traits, Harding attempted to be progressive and move the US in new directions.

What most people didn't know about Harding was that he was a partier. He was most known in the political arena for having numerous affairs, for drinking and smoking way too much, and having marathon poker matches. It's been reported that one time he gambled away some White House china. Other than these activities, the only real kind of exercise he had was playing some golf.

Domestically, Harding actually did some good things like signing legislation on child welfare and ending railroad strikes. He tried to pass anti-lynching bills and the unemployment rate dropped in half under his tenure. He was also surrounded by controversy because of events like the Teapot Dome Scandal. Some of his cabinet members would be sent to prison. Nonetheless, Harding was a complex man who did a lot of good for the US, but has been overshadowed by his scandals, affairs, and the mysterious way he died.

Leading up to August 2, 1923, Harding was in poor health. He was traveling across the US giving speeches, but as the trip went on, he was becoming more and more exhausted and ill. He developed an illness that was thought to be pneumonia. He was given some herbs and caffeine, and he showed signs of improvement. Those around him thought he was on the way to being better, but on the evening of August 2, 1923, he collapsed while talking with his wife in their room in a San Francisco hotel.

Cause of death were guessed by many, some saying stroke and others saying heart attack. We won't know for sure because his wife refused to allow an autopsy. It was around the time of her refusal that another theory came up: maybe she had something to do with his death. Her actions immediately following the death didn't help with her case: she found as many of his papers as she could find (public and personal) and burned them.

The real reason the theory that Florence Harding has been blamed by many is because of a book that came out called 'The Strange Death of President Harding'. The book alleges that Mrs. Harding poisoned him because of his affairs and crooked dealings. This book, however, was 'written' by Gaston Means, who was a well-known private detective, bootlegger, con man, forger, swindler, blackmailer, and murder suspect. (Fans of the show 'Boardwalk Empire' will know the name since he was portrayed in the third season.) It came out later that Means only took credit for writing the book, and the ghostwriter had been cut out of her share of the books profits which is why she came forward. Means didn't care because he'd already made his money and moved on to his next scheme.

Scholars have looked at the reports of Harding's health around the time, and most agree that he had been suffering from 'cardiac insufficiency with congestive heart failure' in the time before his death. However, it is true that we will probably never really know what killed the president. However, one thing is true: he was not murdered, and instead died of natural reasons.

Rise and Fall of the LaserDisc

Certain technologies that have found their way into the past still resonate with younger generations. Things like cassette tapes, VHS tapes, rotary dial phones, and others are things that are pretty much gone but not forgotten. There is one technology that many younger people aren't familiar with, and that's the LaserDisc.

Pioneer VP-1000 LaserDisc Player

 The LaserDisc can trace is origins to the late 1950's. David Paul Gregg and James Russell invented "laser disc technology" which used a transparent disc. They patented their invention in 1961, which was bought by MCA in 1968. The following year, Phillips (a competitor) successfully developed a videodisc that played in reflective mode, which has more advantages than the transparent disc. MCA and Phillips then again agreed to collaborate on the technology, and first publicly demonstrated the technology in 1972.

On December 15, 1978, the LaserDisc was first put on the market in Atlanta, but it wasn't known as LaserDisc yet because it was first marketed as 'MCA DiscoVision'. The MCA-Phillips cooperation wasn't as successful as they'd hoped, even though Phillips made the players and MCA made the discs. By 1980, Pioneer purchased a majority stake in the technology and began releasing what they called "LaserDisc", or formally "Laser Videodisc".

The first North American release on LaserDisc was the MCA DiscoVision release of 'Jaws' in 1978.

There were positives and negatives to the technology. Negatives being that the players were expensive and so were the movies themselves. Although the video and audio quality were much better than VHS or Betamax, the price just couldn't come down enough. Some abilities of the DVD and BluRay come straight from the LaserDisc's huge advantage over the VHS: bonus features. The 1984 release of the Criterion Collection's release of 'Citizen Kane' was the first Special Edition movie released. By allowing for more than one audio channel on the disc, viewers could now listen to the audio of the movie or a commentary of the movie or even other languages of the movie. However, LaserDisc's were like vinyl records in that you have to turn them over since they held (at most) one hour of video per side. Those who had LaserDiscs in the US were deeply devoted to them and even claimed superiority of the technology when the DVD was released in the 90's. Even though for some early DVDs this might have been true, the way the technology is setup is different, and allows for better quality and ease of use for the DVD.

Comparison of disc sizes

By 1998, it was estimated that only about 2% of US households had a LaserDisc player, whereas in Japan, it was around 10%. The LaserDisc just never really caught on in the US, but was very popular in Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and other Eastern Asian areas. The technology never blossomed in Europe or Australia and remains nearly an unknown there. Within a couple years, discs and players were no longer sold in American stores, and the importing of players from Japan ceased in 2001. The last movie distributed in the US on LaserDisc was 'Bringing Out the Dead' in 2000. Pioneer continued to make the players until 2009, when they ceased production.

Even though this technology has fallen into the sands of the past, it certainly isn't forgotten. Those that still have their LaserDisc players are extremely devoted, usually still refusing to accept DVD or BluRay. The LaserDisc is a very important technology in that without it, who knows what DVDs or BluRays would be like today.

Is It a Dolphin or Porpoise?

Can you believe that in our advanced society of science that not all scientists agree on what is a dolphin or a porpoise? There are some holdouts and which is which. So what is the difference you ask? There are some traits that are generally agreed to be specific to dolphins and some specific to porpoises.

Porpoise on top, Dolphin on bottom

Firstly, if you look at their mouths, the snout of each animal is referred to as the beak (kind of like a bird). The dolphin's beak is longer and sleeker than the porpoise's. Secondly, look at their dorsal fin (the fin on their backs). The dolphin's tends to be curved or hooked, whereas the porpoise fin tends to be more of a triangle. Thirdly, look at the actual body shape. The dolphin tends to be leaner and sleeker overall, whereas the porpoise seems to be more plump and not as sleek. Fourthly, their teeth. The dolphin has cone-shaped teeth, but the porpoise has shorter spade-shaped teeth. Fifthly, listen to them. The dolphins are very talkative and make all sorts of sounds. The porpoise doesn't seem to do this, and it's believed it's because of the way their heads are shaped. The dolphin's sounds come from the blowhole on the top of their head, but the porpoise head is shaped differently, which is why that theory is believed by most.

On the other hand, there are two big similarities of dolphins and porpoises. Firstly, they are both highly intelligent creatures. They learn and adapt well, they are very social and curious, they form close bonds, and they are able to generate and effectively use sonar. Secondly, they are similar in size and shape. They both belong to the order Cetacea which includes whales also. All three are marine mammals that share the same general habitat.

Generally, it is agreed that there are 32 species of dolphin (plus 5 species of river dolphins), which includes the largest dolphin: the killer whale (which is actually a dolphin). On the other hand, it is generally agreed that there are only 6 species of porpoise.

All the order of Cetacea (whales, dolphins, porpoises)

What Was the First Automobile?

Believe it or not, this is a hard question to answer. The reason is because it depends on what your feelings are that would qualify a device as an automobile. Is it something that has an internal combustion engine? Does it run on steam, gasoline, or electricity? Was it mass produced? Could it hold more than one person? There are a lot of vehicles that could qualify as the first automobile. But first let's look at where this invention came from.

The first recorded designs for a machine that could transport without the aid of horses was actually drawn by Leonardo da Vinci in the late 1400's, but he chose to focus on his art rather than his inventions, so this 'carriage without horses' would have to wait. The first actual attempts at making a moving vehicle without the aid of horses used steam. Around the year 1672, a Jesuit missionary to China named Ferdinand Verbiest created a steam powered carriage as a gift to the emperor. This vehicle was too small to carry anyone, but it's perhaps the first instance of a vehicle that could run under its own power. In the 1770's and 1780's in England, steam powered vehicles were created that were large enough to carry people and cargo. They began to be used often and to growing success, but the Locomotive Act of 1865 effectively killed off the use of steam powered vehicles on public roads. For the rest of the 1800's, England focused more on the railroads than on automobiles.

Steam powered vehicle from 1769

In the 1800's, experiments were created with vehicles that were electric, but most of these weren't practical and weren't beyond models. These tended to be more related to railroads and most electrical powered vehicles inventing was abandoned by the early 20th century. The most popular form of engine for these horseless carriages was an internal combustion engine. By the latter part of the 19th century, this type of engine was the preferred method of power. In 1870 Austria, an inventor named Siegfriend Marcus put one of these engines on a handcart was the first to successfully use a gasoline-powered engine propel a vehicle. Marcus's only patent was an ignition system in 1883. His second vehicle came out in 1888 and featured a carburetor, both of which were important advances in the development of the automobile.

Karl Benz's 1885 automobile design

To answer what was the first automobile is difficult because historians pretty much agree that there were several German inventors who came out with working automobiles with internal combustion gasoline engines around the same time. The most accepted and known of these was the vehicle that Karl Benz created in 1885, even though it was literally a horse carriage with an engine attached. The first completely new design came in 1889 by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach who built a new concept from the ground up.

Daimler/Maybach 1889 automobile design

So it's really hard to explain what the first automobile was. There are other firsts that are easy to explain, such as the first automobile manufacturing company in the United States was the Duryea Motor Wagon Company in 1893. The first automobile company to dominate the US market was Ransom E. Olds's company: the Olds Motor Vehicle Company (you'd know it by its later name Oldsmobile).

Rick Monday Saves the American Flag

What is the greatest play in MLB history? Was it the Willie Mays catch in 1954? Was it the shot heard 'round the world in 1951? Was it Carlton Fisk waving the ball fair in 1975? Was it Hank Aaron passing Ruth in 1974? Was it Kirk Gibson's 1988 home run? Was it Lou Gehrig's speech in 1939? Don Larsen's perfect game in 1956? Was it Bill Mazeroski's walk-off in 1960? Jackie Robinson in 1947? These are some of the greatest moments in MLB history, but since today is July 4, and we are celebrating the signing of the Declaration of Independence and therefore America's independence, I submit to you an act of patriotism to be considered one of the greatest moments in MLB history. 

Famous photo taken after Rick Monday saved the flag

On April 25, 1976, the Cubs were playing the Dodgers in Dodger Stadium. It was a game like any other. But one must remember the era: post Nixon, post Vietnam, and America's Bicentennial. There was a mixture of high patriotism and lack of patriotism. In this hot and cold environment, protests were happening. And on that day, there was one in the outfield of Dodger Stadium.

In the bottom of the 1st inning, William Thomas and his 11 year old son ran onto the field with an American flag. Thomas knelt down in front of it and poured lighter fluid on it. His came over shortly afterward. They tried to light a match, but it was blown out. While this was going on, a Cub outfielder named Rick Monday watched but wasn't sure what was going on. As soon as he saw the lighter fluid, he knew what was happening. He ran from his outfield position to the two protesters. He's been quoted as saying "I wanted to bowl them over, but I just wanted to get that flag out of there." Rick Monday ran in and before the lit match could ignite the flag, he grabbed it off the ground and ran through the field with it. By this point, other players, umpires, and even Tommy Lasorda (at the time 3rd base coach for the Dodgers) ran to stop the protesters. Thomas and his son were both arrested. As soon as Monday saved the flag, the crowd erupted in cheers. When it was Monday's turn to hit the next inning, a message on the screen said "Rick Monday...You made a great play!" In the seats, the crowd began to sing "God Bless America", and he received a standing ovation.

For many people, it was just another day, but for Rick Monday, it was a career day. You won't find his name in hardly any lists of greatest players ever, but if you look for the greatest plays in the MLB's history, you will find this moment, which really isn't a baseball moment. There's no amazing double or triple play, no home runs, no diving play, no blown calls, nothing that is typical of a great play. But what you will find is a great American moment of one man who didn't want to see the American flag destroyed in one of the most American of events. Monday displayed a patriotism that day that every American can look up to.

Rick Monday's 1976 baseball card

As for Rick Monday, he had a career year in 1976, but was traded (oddly enough) to the Dodgers after the season was over. After he retired a few years later, he became a broadcaster for the Dodgers, switching to the Padres for a time, then switching back. In 2008, he was awarded the Peace One Earth medallion by Patricia Kennedy, founder of Stand Up 4 Vets, for his actions that day in April 1976. He still has the flag he saved that day and has been offered millions for it, but he refuses to give it up - he still saves it to this day.

If you want to see the play from that game, click here.

Why Are Cicadas So Loud?

One of my least favorite sounds is the screeching call of the cicada. The cicada is an insect that makes long and loud calls, usually in the summer. Once you've heard this sound, you never forget it because it's loud (some are known to reach 100 decibels) and it's never just one cicada going: it's many. But why are there many, and what causes this annoying sound?

You can usually find these loud insects in trees high off the ground to allow their songs to travel farther. Why? Because the songs are actually mating calls. They attempted to emit the loudest and longest song possible to try to attract a mate. Only the males make this sound.

The sound is produced by two membranes in their abdomen called tymbals. They contract a tymbal muscle which causes the two membranes to rub against each other. It's rubs once and makes a click. When the muscle relaxes back, it clicks again. These tymbal muscles can contract and relax very fast, which causes the sound we hear. However, it isn't that loud. Hollow air sacs in the abdomen amplify the sound. The tympanum further amplifies the sound, and the 100 decibel song is on.

The female cicadas will respond with what can be called a 'wing flick'. Cicadas have great eye sight, so if the female is close, he can probably see her. But just in case, her wing flick gives just enough sound for him to find her. They find each other and together the call and wing flick become a courtship call.

It's possible that if you startle a cicada, it will give a warning call. Oddly enough, this sounds just like the mating call. Either way, the sounds cicadas make are rather disturbing.

January 2, 1971

January 2, 1971, is an important date for advertising people to remember because it was the day that the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act went into effect. This act did not allow cigarette companies to advertise on TV or radio beginning on that day. But where did this act come from? And what happened after?

Fans of the the show Mad Men or those who have watched talk shows in the 60's will know that smoking in the 60's was very commonplace. In fact, the 50's influence of "the coolness of smoking" transferred to the 60's. But, there were changes coming in the 60's. In 1964, Luther Leonidas Terry (the Surgeon General) issued a report about the effects of smoking as it related to chronic bronchitis and lung cancer. The following year, Congress passed the Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act which forced all cigarette packages sold in the US to have warning labels. The FTC recommended a change, and the act was amended to say that the warning came straight from the US Surgeon General.

A strong advocate of a stronger act was the FCC who said that TV stations were breaking the 'Fairness Doctrine' by airing cigarette commercials. In case you're wondering, the Fairness Doctrine was an FCC policy beginning in 1949 that said that broadcasters had to present controversial issues of public importance in a balanced and honest manner. Since the new view of cigarette health risks was looked at as an issue of public importance, the FCC looked at the airing of cigarette ads without a counterpoint for the dangers of cigarettes to be breaking the doctrine.

In 1969, Congress introduced the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act, which would ban cigarette ads from TV and radio, mostly because of the FCC's urges that the ads broke the Fairness Doctrine. The act was signed on April 1, 1970, but didn't go into effect until January 2, 1971. The reason for the delay was a compromise with broadcasters. Since the college football bowl games were January 1, Congress allowed the broadcasters that last day for advertising.

So, at 11:59 pm, January 1, 1971, the Tonight Show with Johnny Carson went to break like it had done many times since he took over in 1962. At that moment, a minute-long Virginia Slims commercial aired. Then at midnight, the act took affect and no longer were commercials to feature cigarette companies.

The other element the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act did was to require stronger warning labels on the cigarette packaging. By 1981, it was determined that the warnings and lack of TV and radio advertising did nothing to lower the amount of smokers. A new act followed in 1984 to educate youth on the health risks and a new series of warnings followed on the packaging.

Without TV and radio ads, the tobacco companies wanted to still get their message out there. For many years, the companies had many different mascots, sometimes even cartoon characters (Joe Camel for instance). Documents prove that tobacco companies were trying to soften their image with children, and in 1991, the Journal of American Medical Association reported in a study that more children aged 5 and 6 could recognize Joe Camel than could identify Mickey Mouse or Fred Flintstone. During the period of 1988-1993, the number of adolescent customers grew from 1% overall to 13% overall.

As the fight continues today between the tobacco companies and the government, other industries such as the alcohol companies police themselves very well by not marketing to anyone under 21, not advertising on shows whose audience is primarily underage, and they encouraged "responsible drinking" campaigns. Alcohol companies saw what happened to the tobacco industry and didn't want to have that happen to them too. On the other hand, alcohol companies are the biggest advertisers for sports, so it would be a huge lack of money for the sports teams.

Either way, it's been a long road for the tobacco companies in the past 60 years. In the 50's, Winston could have an ad with cartoon characters Fred Flintstone and Barney Rubble enjoying their cigarettes on TV, and now you don't see many ads for cigarettes at all. But you can look back at January 2, 1971, for the end of the TV and radio ads.

And if you don't believe me on Fred and Barney smoking, click here to see the commercial.

"Sweet Caroline"

The night after the bombing at the Boston Marathon, baseball stadiums across the country played a tribute to  Boston in the form of a song. The song "Sweet Caroline" by Neil Diamond was played over the PA systems, with the crowds singing along. For those of you that aren't familiar with Red Sox tradition, this song is played at every home game in the middle of the 8th. But you might be wondering why that song? And where did this tradition come from? Today, we will take a look into the story of this tradition.

The origins of this tradition can be traced to 1997. An employee in charge of playing music played the song over the speakers as a tribute to a friend of hers who'd had a baby named Caroline. Over the next five years,  the organization saw that there was always a good response when they played song, but they only played it occasionally. Firstly, they only played it later in the game when the Sox were winning, and secondly, because of this, they wouldn't play it at the same time in the game. Sometimes it was the end of the 7th, sometimes the middle of the 8th, and sometimes the end of the 8th. There was no consistency.

In 2002, Charles Steinberg started working for the Red Sox as executive vice president of public affairs. He noticed that the fans really enjoyed the song and would sing along to it. He asked a member of the control room if they were going to play the song one day, and the response was "Oh no we can't play that today. It's not a 'Sweet Caroline' day." A 'Sweet Caroline' day is a day when they were winning, near the end, and the mood was upbeat and festive. Steinberg argued that if the team was losing, they'd need something like 'Sweet Caroline' to lift their spirits. He insisted that the song be played, and played regularly. He also insisted that it be played before the Sox batted to lift the mood if they were losing, and to release their joy if they were winning.

Ever since then, the song has been played at every home game in the middle of the 8th since then. It has become a staple of Boston. When the tragic events at the Boston Marathon occurred, this song popped up across the country at other baseball games and even other sporting events in tribute for Boston.

An additional note about the song: it was written about Caroline Kennedy. When President Kennedy was shot, there was a photo taken of young Caroline Kennedy. Neil Diamond saw the photo and was inspired to write the song for her. Years later, she was at Fenway Park and Steinberg asked her if the song was inspired by her. She didn't think so, but it turns out it was.

Lincoln's Funeral Car Mystery

Recently, a mystery was solved. The question was simple; finding the answer was hard. The year 2015 marks the 150th anniversary of Abraham Lincoln's death, so in his honor, a replica of the funeral railcar is being constructed and taken along the original route that Lincoln's funeral car made in 1865. The original trip lasted two weeks, and so will this one. In celebrating and honoring the President, there was one detail which came up that needed to be answered. The railcar was sold after the procession at an auction. It went through a number of owners before it was destroyed by a fire in 1911. Since the railcar doesn't exist anymore, and the only photographs of it are not in color, what color was it?

Photograph of Lincoln's funeral car

In steps Wayne Wesolowski, chemist at University of Arizona at Tuscon, who was brought on to solve the mystery. Wesolowski was a natural choice. While teaching in Chicago, he directed the Lincoln Train Project, where the funeral procession was the main focus. He completed a 15-foot scale model of the railcar for the project in 1995.

Wesolowski's first step was to pour through historical records such as newspapers and other written materials. This proved inconclusive because most said nothing of the color, and those that did tended to be contradictory. One article mentioned it was a claret or red wine color, and another mentioned chocolate brown. Big difference? Well, remember that there were no chocolate bars at the time, and the only real chocolate was Dutch chocolate, which was a reddish brown. This would mean that most likely it was a dark reddish color, but that wasn't enough.

Through his research, he found a man in Minnesota who had a window frame piece from the original railcar. There was some paint still on the frame, although not much. He was able to take microscopic samples of the paint and laid them on color samples to match them up. Since the samples were microscopic, it was possible to see the dots of the colors mixed which your eye then tells you of the overall color. Under the microscope, it appears as a patchwork or dots. Matching is simple: if the frame sample is visible on top of the color sample, then it is not correct; if it disappears, then it matches. After much trial and error, he found the right color.

What was the verdict? A dark maroon color. When he was interviewed, he noted that his 1995 model was too red. So when we see the replica railcar in 2015, it will be the same color as the original, and a celebration of the legacy of one of our nation's greatest presidents can be truly honored accurately.

TV's Lost Airings

From the advent of the TV until the late 50's, a number of shows were broadcast live, meaning they didn't record the episode then broadcast it later: they actually acted like it was a play. Some are amusing to watch when you see someone mess up; you'd never see that today! Through this time, however, there was a growing sentiment to have shows recorded and broadcast later, that way one could fix the mess ups and redo the messed up scenes. Many shows went from live to recorded very quickly as the 50's ended. There was a problem with recorded shows: the tapes. What was the broadcast company going to do with all those tapes? Tapes weren't cheap, so from the first recorded telecasts in the 30's/40's through the late 70's, a process of tape wiping went rampant through the television industry.

There wasn't a sense that things aired on TV were useful beyond their original airdate, so when the tapes were put into storage. These tapes weren't cared for in a way they would be today. Instead, the tapes had the original broadcast on them until they needed another tape. The TV company would simply wipe over the original broadcast on the tape, then reuse the tape for the next show. It's essentially like taking a VCR tape, recording a show on it, then once you don't need it anymore, you record over it. This meant that an incredible amount of classic TV airings have been lost to time, having only been shown once.

At the time, there was no such thing as a re-run (a great example is when Marty McFly went back to 1955 and said he saw an episode of the Honeymooners on a re-run, and the kid said "What's a re-run?"). Shows aired once, then that was it. Now, we have re-runs on TV, we have Netflix and Hulu to watch series, we can watch shows on TV channel's websites, we can watch series on dvd and blu ray, or we can just download them or watch them from the cloud. We are not used to there being only one copy in existence, and it being erased. The problem is that the TV corporations didn't realize that there might be historical value in this early broadcasts. Some moments from history have been lost, as well as great moments in television history have been lost.

This issue isn't solely an American TV issue because the practice of wiping tapes happened all over the world. Terry Gilliam, member of Monty Python, has said that in the 70's, the BBC said it was going to erase all of the TV show of the Monty Python's Flying Circus, so he bought up every episode to save them, and today they still exist in their entirety from it. But many other broadcasts (even well known ones) weren't so lucky.

Here's a short list of some of the most well-known TV airings that have been completely, mostly, or partially lost:

• 106 episodes from 1960's airings of Doctor Who
• the debut broadcast of Ed Sullivan in 1948
• no episodes of the Vampira Show survived
• most Tonight Show with Johnny Carson from 1962-72 were taped over
• 1968's Super Bowl II
• many episodes of soap operas before 1978 have been lost, in some case whole series have been lost
• the original NASA broadcast of the Apollo 11 moon landing is missing from NASA archives
• most gameshows from the 70's and before don't exist anymore (only 24 Jeopardy! episodes from 1964-75 exist; only episodes from 1968, 1971-76 of Hollywood Squares exist from the period of 1966-81; Wheel of Fortune episodes from 1975-79 are said to be destroyed; and only 11 episodes of the Match Game during 1962-69 exist)
• many episodes of music shows such as Ready Steady Go and Top of the Pops are lost, most notably including nearly all recordings of Pink Floyd with Syd Barrett and the Beatles last live TV performance in 1966

By 1978, the practice of wiping old tapes was for the most part ended in Europe and the US. There have been some instances where copies of old shows have been destroyed, usually because of conflict of ownership. There are still old "lost" episodes of shows that seem to appear. A mostly complete copy of Super Bowl I showed up a couple years ago, and old Doctor Who episodes continue to be discovered every so often. A massive hunt is underway for Doctor Who episodes since 2013 is the 50th anniversary of the series' beginning. However, some shows were just completely erased or never saved in the first place, and still others were lost due to improper storage techniques. This isn't solely a TV problem, since some films have been lost also, but the TV industry thought of itself as a totally disposable medium until they learned what they had by the late 1970's. Sadly, it was already too late for a number of shows.

Where Do the Jogging Side Cramps Come From?

If you have ever jogged for exercise for any amount of time or even gone for a long swim, you have probably noticed the dreaded side cramp. This is that tight pain in your right abdomen. If you are new to jogging, then you will probably feel it quickly. But take heart in that even experienced joggers can feel it too. So where does it come from and how does it go away?

For once on this blog, I'm sorry to say that the true cause is still not completely known. Since it occurs during  times of exercise/exertion, there are some clues as to why it happens. The common theory at the time is that it is caused by changes in blood flow to the abdominal viscera (or the connective tissue on your diaphragm) from the tugging that each step causes. These cramps can be annoying at first, but they get painful quickly.

How does one prevent these side cramps? There is no one proven method, but there are steps that can lower your chances of having these occur.

1. Make sure your jogging form is good. Bad form can lead to bad pains.
2. Not having any solid food or drinking large amount of water at least two hours (and preferably four hours) before you go on your jog.
3. Make sure to stretch your side and torso before going on your jog.
4. Strengthen your back and abdominal muscles.
5. Make sure to stay hydrated because dehydration can cause cramps.

So you get the side cramps. How do you make them go away quicker? There are a couple of ways to make the side cramps go away quicker than doing nothing. If you are jogging, obviously stop jogging. It's recommended to walk until they go away, or even bend over and breathe deeply. If you are continuing your jog, then press two fingers against the pained area. Probably the best way is to focus on your breathing. It's recommended to breathe in a 3:2 ratio compared to your steps. Inhale for three steps, and exhale for two. 

Good luck with your exercising!

Is Neon Really in a Neon Light?

Have you ever wondered what makes neon lights have such funky colors? Did you know that neon isn't the only color used in those colorful lights? Neon lights have been around since the first part of the 20th century, and from the 1920's-50's they were all the rage. Even though cheaper alternatives have been created since then, love of the original neon lights still have a following.

Example of an old neon sign.

 There is more than just neon used in the neon lights. It was discovered that if you had a tube of neon and ran a charge of electricity through it, it would glow with a red light. Only a little neon is needed, but you have to use a large amount of electric charge (even though the actual input is low, which makes them really energy efficient). Neon lights also don't have filaments, so they don't burn out. Instead, what typically happens is the metal on the ends degrades, but that takes a long time to happen (which makes neon lights last a long time). But scientists found out that neon wasn't the only gas that would glow like that.

Neon is a gas in the atmosphere and part of the periodic table of elements known as the noble gases. The noble gases are gases on the right side of the table that are unreactive to other elements. These are unreactive because they won't bond with other elements. Why won't they bond? Because the outermost ring of electrons in the atom has to be able to share electrons with other atoms. For example, 8 is the magic number of electrons. If there are 8 electrons, then that's what the atom wants. But if your atom has an outer ring of 7 electrons, then it most wants to share an electron with an atom that only has 1 electron in its outermost ring. A ring with 6 electrons wants either an atom with 2 electrons in its outermost ring or two atoms with 1 electron in their outermost rings. Make sense? Well, the noble gases are called "noble" after the royalty of the old days: they didn't mix with others. So there weren't really any practical uses for the noble gases, until the electricity through them was found out.

There are six naturally occurring noble gases: helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. Helium is only one of these elements that does not have eight electrons in its outermost electron ring (it has only two electrons in the entire atom). Radon is not used in neon lights because it is radioactive. Helium, argon, krypton, and xenon are all used in addition to neon in these style of lights, with each one glowing a specific color.


 Neon glows with a bright red color.


Helium glows with a fainter reddish-pink color (to make it brighter, sometimes a small amount of mercury is added).


Argon glows with a light blue color.


Krypton glows with a yellowish-white color, which can be used with colored glass to make all sorts or colors.


Xenon glows with a bright purple color.

The combinations of helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon along with other elements like mercury and carbon dioxide can produce many different colors. However, a lot of tubes are also colored in a variety of colors using phosphors, which are substances that can glow (think of phosphorus). When you have a gas that gives off a certain color, and you can put a color of tube around that gas, then creating just about any color is as simple as when you mix paint. For example, if you have the blue argon light, and put a yellow tube, then you will get a green light.

Today we had a trip through chemistry, but wasn't it interesting?